Order of Merit for National Foundation

2nd Class

Presidential Medal

What is  Merit for National Foundation:

A medal awarded to those who have made distinguished contributions to the establishment of the Republic of Korea or those who have made distinguished contributions to the foundation of the nation.

2nd class:

More than 5 years of activity

Gidong Kang :

[1884. 03. 05~1911. 04. 17]

Achievements

While working as a military police assistant in Gorampo, Jangdan, liberated imprisoned uibyeong fighters in 1907, prompting him to join the anti-Japanese armed struggle.

  1. Became an uibyeong commander, operating mainly in Yangju and Pocheon, and coordinating closely with other commanders such as Yeon Gi-u.

  2. Led guerrilla operations across Gyeonggi and Hwanghae provinces, maintaining small elite units to avoid exposure to Japanese informants.

  3. Issued proclamations and recruited fighters in June 1908 to continue armed resistance, despite increasing Japanese pressure.

  4. Engaged in multiple battles with Japanese forces, including confrontations in Pocheon (1910), Yangju (April and May 1910), and attempted infiltration into Seoul.

  5. Commanded a 100-strong force with Kang Du-pil, operating in Gangwon Province.

  6. Continued resistance after the 1910 annexation, moving toward North Manchuria while maintaining armed activity.

Verdicts

  • Arrested in Wonsan in February 1911 while moving toward North Manchuria, transported to Yongsan, Seoul, and executed by firing squad.

Chun‑seon Gu:

[1860. 02. 20~1944. 03. 20]

Achievements

Born in Onseong, North Hamgyong; initially served in the central royal guard in Seoul before moving to North Manchuria in 1897.

  1. Helped establish protective outposts for Korean settlers in the Yanji region and later contributed to founding key churches in Yongjeong and Hamatang.

  2. Played a central role in Korean self-governing bodies in Manchuria, serving as vice-chairman of the Korean Self-Governing Association in 1913.

  3. Led the March 13, 1919 Yongjeong independence rally with over 30,000 participants and became president of the reorganized Korean National Association (대한국민회), one of the most prominent post–March 1st organizations in North Manchuria.

  4. Organized military fundraising, recruitment, and armed activities in coordination with the Provisional Government and other resistance groups, including setting up 72 branch offices in the Gando region.

  5. Served as regional head of the Total Office (총판부) overseeing Yeongil, Hualong, Dunhua, and Aemok in 1920, coordinating anti-Japanese armed operations.

  6. Participated in forming the Korean Independence Army Corps in 1920, experienced the Free City Incident in 1921, and returned to Eastern Manchuria to plan military school establishment and assassination operations.

  7. Later shifted focus to religious and educational movements, worked on rebuilding the Korean National Association in North Manchuria, and contributed to underground Christian networks in East Manchuria during the 1930s.

Dong-jin Kwon :

[1861. 12. 15~1947. 03. 09]

Achievements

Served as county magistrate of Haman and army lieutenant colonel during the late Joseon period; later joined the Gaehwadang (Enlightenment Party) and engaged in reformist activities.

  1. Lived in exile in Japan after the 1882 Imo Incident, converted to Cheondogyo, and became a dos a (religious leader).

  2. In early 1919, actively supported the drafting of the Korean Declaration of Independence alongside Son Byeong-hui and Oh Se-chang, approving its principles and contributing to petitions criticizing Japanese imperial rule and supporting U.S. President Wilson’s principle of self-determination.

  3. As a Cheondogyo representative, recruited other leaders to sign the Declaration, leading to his role as one of the 33 national representatives at the March 1, 1919 Independence Movement in Seoul.

  4. After shouting Manse at the declaration ceremony in Taehwagwan, was arrested by Japanese police, later joining the Singanhoe as vice president after release to continue promoting national independence and unity.

Verdicts

In 1920, sentenced by the Gyeongseong Appellate Court to three years’ imprisonment under Japan’s Public Order and Publication Laws for his role in the March 1st Movement, serving time at Seodaemun Prison.

Byeong-deok Kwon:

[1868. 04. 25~1943. 07. 13]

Achievements

Born in Cheongju, Chungcheongbuk-do; joined the Donghak movement at age 18 and participated in the 1894 Donghak Peasant Revolution alongside Son Byeong-hui, leading 60,000 followers in resistance against the government army.

  1. After the movement’s suppression, traveled across the country; later joined Cheondogyo in 1908 under Son Byeong-hui, serving in key leadership positions including Director of Jeonje-gwan, Acting Director of Imun-gwan, Director of Finance, and Director of Bomun-gwan.

  2. In February 1919, learned of the March 1st Independence Movement plan from Son Byeong-hui, Kwon Dong-jin, and Oh Se-chang; agreed to sign the Korean Declaration of Independence as one of the 33 national representatives.

  3. Participated in drafting and reviewing the declaration and related documents on February 27, 1919, and publicly proclaimed Korean independence on March 1 at Taehwagwan in Seoul.

  4. After release from prison, held senior positions in the Cheondogyo headquarters, including Head of the Central Church Audit Bureau, Director of the Inspection Bureau, and Seondosa (missionary leader).

  5. Authored works such as Joseon Chongsa (Comprehensive History of Korea), Ijo Jeonrans a (History of Wars of the Joseon Dynasty), and Gungjung Bisa (Secret History of the Royal Court).

Verdicts

In 1920, sentenced by the Gyeongseong Appellate Court to two years’ imprisonment under Japan’s Public Order and Publication Laws for his role in the March 1st Movement, serving his term at Seodaemun Prison.

Gyeong - cheon Kim :

[1888. 06. 05~1942. 01. 02]

Achievements

Graduated from the Japanese Military Academy and served as a Japanese Army officer before defecting to the Korean independence movement after the February 8, 1919 Declaration of Independence in Tokyo.

Escaped to Manchuria in June 1919 with General Yi Cheong-cheon, joining the Korean Independence Youth Corps (대한독립청년단) and later served as an instructor at the Shinheung Military Academy.

Relocated to Vladivostok and formed volunteer militia forces, defending Korean immigrants from bandit attacks and gaining fame as "General Kim (김장군)."

Established self-governance and civil administration in the Sucheong area, issuing travel permits and stabilizing local Korean communities.

Led successful battles against Russian White Army forces and coordinated with Soviet Red Army troops, notably in Imán and Yakgoliga (1922).

Appointed Commander of the Korean Division in the Posyet Military District and helped found the Korean Revolutionary Army (고려혁명군) as Eastern Commander, unifying resistance forces in Siberia and Manchuria.

Participated in the 1923 National Representative Conference in Shanghai, worked to unify Korean independence groups, and later founded the Korean Military Officers’ Club (한족군인구락부) in Vladivostok.

Despite later imprisonment and forced labor under Soviet authorities, he remained a symbol of armed resistance.

Posthumously awarded the Order of Merit for National Foundation (Presidential Medal) in 1998 and named Independence Activist of the Month in June 2003.

Verdicts

He was persecuted by Soviet authorities, imprisoned, and sent to labor camps, reflecting the geopolitical struggles of Korean independence fighters in exile.

Dong-sam Kim:

[1878. 06. 23~1937. 04. 13]

Achievements

Nationalist Education & Early Organization

  • 1907: Co-founded Hyupdong Middle School in Andong to promote nationalist education.

  • 1909: Participated in Shinminhoe (신민회) meetings in Seoul to plan independence bases and military training.

  • 1910: Moved to Manchuria, co-founded Gyeonghaksa (耕學社) in Samwonbo to support settlers and prepare for armed struggle.

  • Helped establish the Shinheung Training Center for military education.

  1. Community & Military Institutions in Manchuria

    • 1913: Co-founded Bumin-dan (扶民團), a Korean self-governing body for settlers.

    • Organized Baekseo Farm (白西農庄) as a training base for young independence fighters.

    • 1918: Co-signed the Korean Declaration of Independence (대한독립선언서).

    • 1919: Expanded Bumin-dan into Korean Association (한족회) after the March 1st Movement; became Director of General Affairs.

    • Helped establish the Military Government (군정부), later reorganized into the Western Military Administration Office (서로군정서), serving as Chief of Staff.

  2. Leadership in Unified Movements

    • 1922: Co-founded Tonggunbu (統軍府) as Minister of Education.

    • Later became Chairman of Tonguibu (統義府).

    • 1923: Presided over the National Representative Conference (국민대표회의), working to unify divided factions.

    • 1925: Served as Chief of Staff in the Justice Party (정의부).

    • 1927: Helped form the Korean Unification Promotion Association (민족유일당촉진회) and organized the Farmers’ Mutual Aid Association (농민호조사) to support independence through rural development.

  3. Final Years and Martyrdom

    • 1931: Arrested in Harbin by Japanese police after the Manchurian Incident.

    • 1937: Died in prison after years of harsh imprisonment.

  4. Recognition

    • Posthumously awarded the Order of Merit for National Foundation (Presidential Medal) in 1962.

Verdicts

Japanese Court Judgment:

  • Arrested in Harbin in October 1931 by Japanese police.

  • Transferred via Sinuiju to Seoul.

  • Tried by a Japanese colonial court and sentenced to 10 years imprisonment.

  • Died in Seodaemun Prison on April 13, 1937, during sentence execution.

Byeong-jo Kim :

[1877. 01. 10~1948. 02. 25]

Achievements

Religious & Nationalist Beginnings

  • 1915: Graduated from Pyongyang Theological Seminary, became a Christian pastor.

  • 1919: During the March 1st Movement, learned of the plan from Yi Seung-hun while in Sŏnchŏn. Gave full support, authorizing his seal to be used on the Korean Declaration of Independence as one of the 33 National Representatives.

  • Instead of attending the Seoul ceremony, he organized the movement in Pyonganbuk-do, distributing proclamations and leading demonstrations.

  1. Shanghai Provisional Government Activities

    • April 1919: Escaped Japanese surveillance and went into exile in Shanghai with Kim Gu and Jo Sang-seop.

    • Elected Pyonganbuk-do representative to the Provisional Assembly.

    • July 1919: Served as Standing Director of the Legislative Committee, and later as a member of the League of Nations Petition Drafting Committee.

    • September 1919: Appointed to the Historical Records Compilation Committee, contributing to the Korea-Japan Relations Historical Collection.

  2. Further Independence Contributions

    • 1920: Co-founded the Korean-Chinese Mutual Aid Society (한중호조사) with Yun Ki-seop and Kim Kyu-sik.

    • 1922: Became a teacher at Inseong School in Shanghai.

    • Authored independence histories including Outline of the Korean Independence Movement (1922), Great East History, and Blood History of Independence (1924).

    • 1928: Founded Shinil Elementary School in Mukden and published the Han Race Newspaper, spreading nationalist and independence ideals.

    • 1933: Returned to Korea, served as pastor of Dongsang Church in Yongchŏn, founded Kyŏngshin Elementary School, and continued to inspire patriotism.

  3. Post-Liberation Activities

    • After 1945 Liberation, co-founded the Korean Democratic Party with Cho Man-sik.

    • 1946: Helped form the Liberation Corps, engaging in underground resistance against Soviet control in North Korea.

Boong-jun Kim:

[1888. 08. 22~ ? ]

Achievements

Actively led the 3·1 Independence Movement in Seoul (1919) and later fled to Shanghai.

  1. Participated in the establishment of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea, serving as Minister of Military Affairs, member of the Provisional Assembly, and Secretary-General of the Provisional Cabinet.

  2. Founded the Eastern Committee of the Heungsadan (Young Korean Academy) in 1921, supporting independence activism among Korean expatriates.

  3. Elected as head of the Korean Residents’ Association in Shanghai (1928), and later became principal of Inseong School, training revolutionary youth.

  4. Took part in the founding of the Korean Independence Party and the Korean National Party, working closely with Chinese revolutionaries in anti-Japanese cooperation.

  5. Served as Chairman of the Provisional Assembly (1939), later became a National Commissioner (1943).

  6. Played a central role in the unification of independence parties (Korean Independence Party, Korean Revolutionary Party, and others).

  7. Returned to Korea in 1945 with Kim Gu and other leaders after liberation; contributed to nation-building until abducted to the North in 1950.

Sang-ohk Kim :

[1889. 01. 05~1923. 01. 22]

Achievements

Founded Dongheung Night School in his 20s, combining educational and social enlightenment movements with practical industry by running an ironworks and redistributing profits.

  1. Collaborated with figures like Lee Jong-so, Im Yong-ho, and Son Jeong-do in advancing national enlightenment and independence activities.

  2. Organized the Baekyeongsa Society, promoting temperance campaigns and producing domestic goods such as hats to encourage national self-reliance.

  3. During the 3·1 Independence Movement (1919), co-founded the secret group Hyuksindan (혁신단) with Yoon Ik-jung and others, publishing the Hyuksin Gongbo to spread independence ideas.

  4. In 1920, planned direct militant action with comrades, including assassination attempts against Japanese targets and sabotage missions.

  5. Attempted a protest and armed action during the visit of U.S. congressmen to Seoul, though foiled when some members were arrested.

  6. Escaped to Shanghai (1920) where he connected with Provisional Government leaders like Kim Gu and Yi Si-yeong, continuing his independence activities.

  7. Returned temporarily to Korea (1921–1922) to raise military funds and conduct reconnaissance, and later joined the Uiyeoldan (의열단), smuggling weapons into Seoul.

  8. On January 12, 1923, carried out a bomb attack on Jongno Police Station. After 10 days in hiding, he was cornered and killed in a gunfight with Japanese police on January 22, 1923.

Verdicts

Actively pursued by Japanese police for militant activities.

  1. Carried out a bombing attack against a Japanese police station (Jongno Police Station, 1923).

  2. Killed in armed confrontation with Japanese police on January 22, 1923, while resisting arrest.

Wan-kyu Kim:

[1876. 07. 09~ 1949. 06. 21]

Achievements

Served as a key member of the March 1st Independence Movement (1919) as one of the 33 national representatives (민족대표 33인).

  1. Formerly held government positions as Yeosu Communication Officer and Hansung Prefecture Official before joining Cheondogyo, where he became Bongdo and Beomeopjang.

  2. In February 1919, joined Son Byeong-hui, Kwon Dong-jin, Oh Se-chang, and others in planning the March 1st Declaration of Independence.

  3. Signed the Declaration of Independence as a representative and actively participated in the historic meeting at Taehwagwan on March 1st, shouting for national independence.

  4. After release from prison, continued activities as a Cheondogyo leader (Doshi), combining religious work with nationalist efforts.

  5. After liberation, served as Finance Director of the National Association (국민회 재정부장).

  6. Posthumously honored in 1962 with the Order of Merit for National Foundation (Presidential Medal).

Verdicts

Arrested by Japanese police on March 1, 1919, during the independence declaration at Taehwagwan.

  1. Tried by the Keijō (Seoul) Court of Appeals (경성복심법원) in 1920 and sentenced to 2 years in prison under the Security Law and Publication Law.

  2. Served prison time at Seodaemun Prison.

Ik-sang Kim :

[1895. 06. 25~1941. 08]

Achievements

Native of Goyang, Gyeonggi Province.

  1. After the March 1st Movement, co-founded the secret independence group Innovation Corps (혁신단), publishing Innovation Bulletin to inspire resistance.

  2. In 1920, collaborated with independence fighters from Manchuria to form an assassination squad, planning direct action against Japanese targets.

  3. On Sept. 12, 1921, infiltrated the Japanese Government-General building in Seoul disguised as an electrician and threw two bombs (one exploded, one misfired) in an attempt to assassinate the Governor-General Saitō Makoto.

  4. On Feb. 28, 1922, with comrade Oh Seong-ryun, attempted to assassinate General Tanaka Giichi, former Japanese Army Minister, at the Shanghai Customs Pier by throwing bombs and firing revolvers. The attack failed, but his bold action inspired the independence movement.

  5. Posthumously honored with the Order of Merit for National Foundation (Presidential Medal) in 1962.

Verdicts

Arrested by Japanese authorities after the failed Tanaka Giichi assassination attempt (1922).

  1. Tried at the Nagasaki District Court and sentenced to life imprisonment.

  2. On appeal, the Nagasaki High Court raised the sentence to death.

  3. During sentencing, he struck the presiding judge with a chair and shouted: “Japan will perish, and Korea will be independent!”

  4. His sentence was later commuted to life imprisonment, then reduced to 20 years in 1927.

  5. Imprisoned at Nagasaki Prison (Chōki), where he served over 14 years before being released in 1936.

Ji-seop Kim:

[1884. 07. 21~ 1928. 02. 20]

Achievements

Native of Andong, Gyeongsangbuk-do.

  1. After the annexation of Korea in 1910, began working with Kim Won-bong, Kwak Jae-gi, and Kim Si-hyeon to plan resistance against Japan.

  2. 1922: Joined the Uiyeoldan (의열단) in Shanghai.

  3. Participated in the Far Eastern Peoples’ Congress (Moscow, 1922) to secure funds and international support for Korean independence.

  4. Organized a large-scale bomb plot in 1923, transporting 36 bombs from Shanghai to Tianjin and setting up a relay base in Andong to smuggle them into Seoul for attacks on the Government-General, police stations, courts, Oriental Development Company, and Maeil Shinbo. The plan was exposed by Japanese agent Hwang Ok, leading to arrests and failure.

  5. 1924: As a Uiyeoldan envoy, infiltrated Japan carrying bombs with the aim of attacking the Imperial Diet and later the Imperial Palace in Tokyo. On January 5, 1924, threw bombs near Nijubashi Bridge and Sakuradamon, but they misfired. Captured immediately after.

Verdicts

Held in custody and interrogated extensively in Tokyo.

  1. September 1924: Trial opened at the Tokyo District Court. During his defense, he denounced Japanese colonial rule and declared his actions were to awaken Japan to its aggression.

  2. Jan 6, 1925: Sentenced to life imprisonment (prosecutors had sought the death penalty).

  3. Appeal was dismissed at the Tokyo Court of Appeals, confirming life imprisonment.

  4. Later transferred from Ichigaya Prison to Chiba Prison.

  5. 1927: Sentence reduced to 20 years.

  6. Feb 20, 1928: Died in prison of a cerebral hemorrhage while still serving his sentence.

Ha-Rak Kim :

[1846. 12. 14~1896. 07. 13]

Achievements

Native of Uiseong, Gyeongsangbuk-do.

  1. Played a pioneering role in the 1st Uibyung (Righteous Army) War (1895–1896) immediately after the Eulmi Incident and the haircut edict.

  2. Co-organized and commanded militia forces with comrades such as Jo Seong-hak, Gu Yeon-yeong, Kim Tae-won, and Shin Yong-hui.

  3. Successfully mobilized hundreds of gunmen (포군) and organized large-scale militia resistance in Icheon, Anseong, Gwangju, and surrounding regions.

  4. Advocated guerrilla and ambush tactics against Japanese and pro-Japanese forces; scored victories such as the Battle of Norumok (December 1895), capturing weapons and supplies.

  5. Issued proclamations calling for nationwide resistance and upheld royal edicts urging defense of the nation.

  6. Participated in multiple campaigns with leaders such as Min Seung-cheon, Yu In-seok, Kim Sang-jong, and Shin Dol-seok, expanding resistance from Gyeonggi-do to Gyeongsang-do.

  7. Emphasized discipline and protection of civilians, providing food aid to the poor to reduce public burden.

  8. Ultimately led his militia through campaigns across Uiseong, Cheongsong, Andong, and Gyeongju until falling in battle in June 1896, when he was fatally shot and chose to throw himself into a river to avoid capture, achieving a martyr’s death.

Seok-ju Na:

[1892. 02. 04~ 1926. 12. 28]

Achievements

Born in Jaryeong, Hwanghae-do.

  1. After studying at Myungshin School, went to Manchuria, received military training for 4 years, then returned to Korea.

  2. Secretly organized independence activities while running a shop in Hwanghae-do.

  3. During the March 1st Movement (1919), raised military funds for the Provisional Government in Shanghai and organized a militant group.

  4. Carried out armed resistance with Han Dae-hong, including the assassination of Japanese police and collaborators in Hwanghae-do.

  5. Escaped to Shanghai (1920) and served as a bodyguard for the Provisional Government. Later studied at the Handan Military Academy in China.

  6. Joined the Uiyeoldan (의열단, Heroic Corps) and, following Kim Chang-sook’s directive, resolved to attack colonial institutions exploiting Korea.

  7. On December 28, 1926, launched a daring attack in Seoul:

    • Threw a bomb at the Shiksan Bank.

    • Infiltrated the Oriental Development Company (東洋拓殖會社, Dongchuk), assassinated and wounded multiple Japanese officials and employees.

    • Shot Japanese police officer Jeon Jeon-yucha (田畑唯次) in the street.

  8. Pursued by Japanese police and cavalry, he resisted until the end, then shot himself three times in the chest.

  9. Identified himself as Na Seok-ju before dying, and confessed his cooperation with Kim Chang-sook in planning the attack.

  10. His death shocked both Japanese authorities and independence activists; the Provisional Government held a memorial service in Shanghai.

Yong-hwan Na :

[1864. 08. 07~1936. 08. 19]

Achievements

Born in Seongcheon, Pyeongan-namdo, later became a follower of Cheondogyo.

  • Took part in the Donghak Peasant Movement (1894) alongside Na In-hyeop, leading activities in Pyeongan-do.

  • In 1919, joined Son Byeong-hui, Gwon Dong-jin, and other leaders in Seoul to plan the March 1st Independence Movement.

  • Signed the Declaration of Independence as one of the 33 National Representatives.

  • On March 1, 1919, at Taehwagwan in Insa-dong, participated in the public reading of the declaration, shouted “Manse” for independence, and was arrested by Japanese police.

  • After his release from prison, remained active as a Cheondogyo leader (도사, Dosaa), continuing religious and national activities until his death.

Verdicts

In 1920, tried at the Gyeongseong Appellate Court and sentenced to 2 years in prison under charges of violating the Security Law and Publication Law.

  • Served his sentence at Seodaemun Prison.

In-Hyeop Na:

[1872. 10. 08~ 1951. 04]

Achievements

Born in Seongcheon, Pyeongan-namdo; follower of Cheondogyo.

  1. Joined Donghak (1894) and, with Na Yong-hwan, played a leading role in the Donghak Peasant Movement in Pyeongan-do.

  2. Worked for about 15 years as a Cheondogyo missionary (도사), spreading the faith and promoting enlightenment among the people.

  3. On February 25, 1919, traveled to Seoul, where he met with Son Byeong-hui, Gwon Dong-jin, and Oh Se-chang, and agreed to join the March 1st Independence Movement.

  4. Signed the Declaration of Independence as one of the 33 National Representatives.

  5. On March 1, 1919, attended the gathering at Taehwagwan, shouted “Manse” for Korea’s independence, and was arrested by Japanese police.

  6. After his release, continued to work as a Cheondogyo religious leader until his death during the Korean War (6·25).

Verdicts

In 1920, the Gyeongseong Appellate Court sentenced him to 2 years imprisonment under the Security Law and Publication Law.

Served his sentence at Seodaemun Prison.

Sang-deok Nam :

[1881~1907. 08. 01]

Achievements

Born in Uiryeong, Gyeongsangnam-do, son of Nam Cheol-hui.

  • Served in the Imperial Korean Army (군부 시위대 보병 제2연대 제1대대), rising to the rank of trainee lieutenant (참위).

  • After the 1907 Japan-Korea Treaty (정미7조약) and the forced dissolution of the Korean army, he rose against Japan.

  • On August 1, 1907, upon hearing of General Park Seung-hwan’s martyrdom, he called upon his soldiers to resist: “We must fight to avenge the nation’s shame.”

  • Led about 1,000 troops in armed resistance near Namdaemun, engaging Japanese forces.

  • Successfully inflicted heavy casualties on the Japanese, including killing their commander Kajihara, a veteran officer of the Russo-Japanese War.

  • His uprising, though crushed, sparked the 정미의병 (1907 Righteous Army Movement), as surviving soldiers dispersed and later joined local guerilla independence units.

Verdicts

During the battle, Nam Sang-deok fell in combat, killed by Japanese gunfire when ammunition ran out.

  1. His death was not through judicial trial but as a battlefield martyrdom against Japanese forces.

Ja-hyun Nam:

[1872. 12. 07~ 1933. 08.22]

Achievements

Born in Yeongyang, Gyeongsangbuk-do, later widowed when her husband died in an 1895 Righteous Army (의병) battle against Japanese forces.

  1. Participated in the March 1st Movement (1919), then fled to Manchuria and joined the Seoro Military Government (서로군정서).

  2. Traveled across Manchuria promoting national consciousness, raising independence funds, and working for unity among independence groups.

  3. Established 12 churches and over 10 women’s education associations in East Manchuria to promote women’s enlightenment and independence activism.

  4. In 1925, plotted to assassinate Japanese Governor-General Saitō Makoto, though the plan failed.

  5. Contributed to the unification of Korean independence groups in Manchuria, working with figures like Yang Gi-tak and Son Il-min.

  6. Assisted imprisoned leaders such as Kim Dong-sam and Ahn Chang-ho (1928) and attempted to rescue Kim Dong-sam in 1931 after his capture in Harbin.

  7. In 1932, cut off her left ring finger to write a blood-letter petition (“한국독립원,” Wish for Korean Independence), which she sent to the League of Nations’ Lytton Commission to appeal for Korea’s independence.

  8. In 1933, planned with comrades to assassinate Japanese ambassador Muto Nobuyoshi in Manchuria. While disguised as a beggar woman transporting weapons in Harbin, she was arrested by Japanese police.

  9. Endured six months of brutal torture in custody, then staged a hunger strike for 15 days until her health collapsed. She was released on bail but soon died on August 22, 1933, declaring: “Independence will be achieved through spirit.”

Baek-rin Roh :

[1875. 01. 10~1926. 01. 22]

Achievements

Military Leadership in Korea

  • Educated in Japan (Keio University, Seijo School, and the Japanese Army Academy).

  • Returned to Korea in 1900, served as an army officer, rising to Colonel (정령).

  • Held key posts: Korean Military Academy director, Gendarmerie commander, Army Training School principal, and Military Education Bureau director.

  • Played a central role in training a new generation of Korean officers before the 1907 disbandment of the Korean military.

  1. Nationalist Organizations & Education

    • Co-founded the Shinminhoe (신민회) in 1906 with Ahn Chang-ho, Yi Dong-nyoung, Shin Chae-ho, etc., promoting independence and planning a base in Manchuria.

    • Founded Gwangmu Academy in Songhwa and led the Haeseo Educational Association (1908) for national education and enlightenment.

  2. Exile & Armed Independence Movement

    • After annexation (1910), went into exile in the U.S.

    • Helped found the Kookmin Gun-dan (국민군단) in Hawaii (1910), training over 300 Korean independence fighters with Park Yong-man.

    • After the March 1st Movement (1919), appointed Minister of Military Affairs (군무부 총장) in the Provisional Government of Korea.

  3. Aviation & Modern Warfare

    • Believed future wars would be decided in the air.

    • Established a Flight School in Willows, California (1920), the first Korean aviation training program, graduating dozens of pilots who would later be central to Korean independence efforts.

  4. Political & Government Leadership

    • Played an important role in the Provisional Government, serving as:

      • Minister of Military Affairs (1919–1926).

      • Acting Prime Minister (1922).

      • Prime Minister (1923–1924, 1925).

    • Advocated armed struggle against Japan while also working to unify divided independence groups (e.g., Shisa Chekjinhoe, 1922).

    • Issued official proclamations calling all Koreans to join the struggle for independence.

Chang-beom Moon:

[1870~ 1934. 10. 10]

Achievements

Early exile to Russia (1877), where he founded Gwangdong School (1908–1916) in Nikolsk to promote national education among Korean migrants.

  1. 1911: Drafted anti-Japanese proclamations and worked to unite independence groups across Russia and Manchuria.

  2. 1917: Organized the All-Russian Korean Central General Assembly (전로한족회 중앙총회) and became its president, establishing local branches and self-governing structures.

  3. 1918: One of the 39 signatories of the Korean Declaration of Independence in Khabarovsk.

  4. 1919: As president of the newly renamed Korean National Assembly (대한국민의회), he issued a declaration to Japan’s consulate and 11 foreign missions in Vladivostok while leading large-scale independence demonstrations.

  5. Appointed Minister of Transportation in the Provisional Government of Korea (Shanghai, 1919) and reappointed after the reorganization in September.

  6. 1920s:

    • Served as advisor to the Korean Red Cross.

    • Helped form the Korean Communist Party’s Yanji branch (1921) and guided independence movements in Russia and Manchuria.

    • Promoted the training of independence fighters through a military academy in Chita and supported the relocation of Korean troops to Free City (자유시) after the Cheongsanri battles.

    • Co-founded the Korean Central Political Council (1922) with Yi Dong-hwi, continuing to organize armed resistance.

  7. Published newspapers such as Jayu-bo (자유보) and New World (신세계) to spread independence ideals.

Tae-soo Moon :

[1880. 03~1913. 02. 04]

Achievements

1905: Met Choi Ik-hyun in Seoul, issued proclamations, and began recruiting righteous armies.

  • 1906–1909:

    • Led numerous battles in Jirisan, Deogyusan, and across Honam and Yeongnam, often defeating Japanese troops and capturing weapons.

    • Successfully attacked Jangsu, Muju, and multiple police stations, killing dozens of Japanese soldiers.

    • Expanded operations into Chungcheong provinces, conducting guerrilla warfare and railway sabotage (e.g., 1909 attack on Iwon Station).

  • 1907: Participated in the large-scale righteous army march toward Seoul, recognized as a regional commander-in-chief (호남창의대장).

  • His leadership and victories earned him wide local support—Muju residents even erected a monument in 1909 to honor his exploits (later demolished by Japanese police).

  • 1910: Planned a major march on Seoul to assassinate Itō Hirobumi and annihilate Japanese forces, but the plan was thwarted by heavy Japanese defenses after annexation.

Verdicts

1911: Betrayed and captured near Deogyusan, then transferred to Jinju, Daegu, and finally Seoul prisons.

  • Maintained unyielding spirit under interrogation but, refusing to submit, committed suicide in prison on February 4, 1913, becoming a martyr for independence.

Geung-ho Min:

[1865~ 1908. 02. 29]

Achievements

Originally a military officer in the Wonju Jinwidae (진위대).

  • 1907.8.5: Refused Japan’s army disbandment order, declaring “Without soldiers, there is no nation”. Immediately raised ~300 men, attacked the Wonju post office and Japanese police, and fought a 3-hour battle against Japanese troops.

  • Organized his forces into small guerrilla units, conducting mobile warfare across Gangwon, Chungcheong, and Gyeongsang provinces.

  • Frequently cooperated with other major commanders like Yi Gang-nyeon, striking Japanese troops in Yeoju, Icheon, Janghowon, Hongcheon, Chuncheon, and Hoengseong.

  • His army often swelled to thousands, achieving major victories such as:

    • Yeoju attack (1907.8.12): Captured police station, eliminated Japanese police/families, seized weapons.

    • Chungju assault (1907.8.23): Joint operation with Yi Gang-nyeon, inflicted heavy losses on Japanese.

    • Multiple raids on Hongcheon, Nangcheon, Chuncheon, Hoengseong, etc., dealing significant damage.

  • Over 100 battles fought; regarded as the largest and strongest righteous army force in Gangwon Province at the time.

Verdicts

1908.2.29: Ambushed by Japanese troops near Chiaksan, Ganglim. Captured alive but attempted escape during a rescue attempt by comrades; executed on the spot by Japanese forces.

  1. His unit’s persistence was so effective that Japanese records admitted failure, noting their “brilliant maneuvers and evasive tactics.”

Jong-sik Min :

[1861. 03. 04~1917. 06. 26]

Achievements

Former government official (Yi Jo Cham-pan, Vice Minister of Personnel) who resigned in protest after the Eulmi Incident (1895) and devoted himself to patriotic causes.

  • Following the Eulsa Treaty (1905), organized righteous armies in Chungcheongnam-do with figures like Lee Yong-gyu, Lee Se-young, and Chae Gwang-muk.

  • 1906.5.11: Officially raised arms at Hong-san Ji-chi, leading one of the largest Eulsa righteous army forces, gathering nearly 10,000 men.

  • Captured weapons and defeated Japanese forces in Seocheon, Nampo, and Boryeong, detaining pro-Japanese officials.

  • 1906.5.19: Advanced to Hongju Fortress, stormed the city, and briefly seized control. Conducted ceremonies pledging to fight to the death for national salvation.

  • Reorganized his forces with a full command structure and repelled initial Japanese counterattacks, inflicting heavy casualties (300+ enemy dead).

  • Despite eventual defeat when Japanese forces breached the fortress, his Hongju uprising was recognized as one of the most formidable and symbolic anti-Japanese armed resistances in the early 1900s.

  • Continued guerrilla resistance in Cheongyang, Onyang, Gongju, and Yesan after retreat from Hongju.

Verdicts

1907.7.2: Captured by Japanese forces, sentenced to death after interrogation.

  1. Sentence was later commuted to life exile through political intervention, and he was banished to Jindo.

  2. Released under royal pardon after Sunjong’s accession, but remained under surveillance until his death in 1917.

Dong-wan Park:

[1885. 12. 27~ 1941. 02. 23]

Achievements

Studied at Hansung Foreign Language School, later worked as an evangelist at Jeongdong Methodist Church and as secretary at Christian News, using his platform to promote independence ideals.

  1. 1919.2.27: Joined Christian leaders at Jeongdong Church, signing the Declaration of Independence as one of the 33 National Representatives.

  2. 1919.3.1: Attended the Taehwagwan gathering, participated in reading the declaration and leading cheers of “Manse,” and was arrested by Japanese police.

  3. 1920: Sentenced to 2 years imprisonment by Gyeongseong Court of Appeals for violating the Security and Publication Laws; served time at Seodaemun Prison.

  4. After release, worked as Chairman of the Boys’ Committee of the YMCA and later as Executive Secretary of Singanhoe, continuing national movements.

  5. 1927: Appointed central executive member of the League for the Protection of Koreans in Manchuria, investigating and advocating for oppressed Korean settlers.

  6. 1928–1940s: Served as the first pastor of the Korean Christian Church in Oahu, Hawaii, expanding its Korean school and instilling patriotism in second-generation Korean-Americans. Maintained secret links with independence organizations in Korea.

Verdicts

1920: Convicted by Japanese court under the Security Law and Publication Law, sentenced to 2 years imprisonment, and imprisoned at Seodaemun Prison for his role as a 3.1 Movement representative.

Seung-hwan Park :

[1869. 09. 07~1907. 08. 01]

Achievements

Served in the Korean Imperial Army for over a decade, rising to the rank of Major (참령) and commanding the 1st Battalion of the 1st Regiment of the Imperial Guards.

  1. After Japan forced Emperor Gojong’s abdication (1907.7.19) and ordered the dissolution of the Korean army, Park resisted.

  2. 1907.8.1: Upon hearing the dissolution order, he denounced it as treason against the Emperor’s will, declaring he would rather die than obey. He wrote a final note — “If soldiers cannot defend the country and officials cannot show loyalty, then dying ten thousand times would not be regrettable.”

  3. Committed suicide by pistol in his battalion office, shouting “Daehan Empire Manse” (“Long live Korea”).

  4. His death became the spark for the Military Mutiny of 1907, as his soldiers, enraged by their commander’s sacrifice, broke open the armory and fought Japanese forces. Many later joined the righteous armies (의병), fueling armed resistance.

Yeol Park:

[1902. 02. 03~ 1974. 01. 17]

Achievements

Participated in the March 1st Movement (1919) as a student, which led to his expulsion from Kyŏngsŏng High School.

  1. Moved to Tokyo (1919), studied at Seisoku English School, and became deeply involved in radical anti-imperialist activism.

  2. 1921–1922: Organized groups such as the Black Wave Society (흑도회) and later the Black Friends Society (흑우회), promoting anarchism and independence through militant resistance.

  3. 1923: Led a plot to assassinate the Japanese Emperor, Crown Prince, Prime Minister, and the Governor-General of Korea during the Crown Prince’s wedding by bombing the ceremony — aiming to strike a symbolic blow against Japanese imperialism.

  4. His activism represented the most radical strand of the Korean independence movement in Japan, directly challenging both Japanese authority and Korean collaborators.

Verdicts

1926.3: Tried at the Tokyo High Court and sentenced to death for the assassination plot.

  1. 1926.4.5: Sentence commuted to life imprisonment (later fixed at 20+ years) by Japanese authorities.

  2. Spent over 20 years in prison until his release on 1945.10.17, following Japan’s defeat and General MacArthur’s liberation order..

Yong-man Park :

[1881. 07. 02~1928. 10. 17]

Achievements

Early involvement in enlightenment and reform movements in Korea: active in the Independence Club, the People’s Joint Association, and later anti-Japanese campaigns such as the protest against the Japanese "wasteland reclamation rights" (1904).

  1. After imprisonment and exile, emigrated to the United States (1905) where he organized Korean students and immigrants for independence work.

  2. 1909: Established the Korean Military School (한인소년병학교) in Nebraska, the first Korean military academy overseas. Trained young Koreans in military science for eventual independence warfare.

  3. Served as editor of Shinhan Minbo (신한민보), the organ of the Korean National Association, and advanced the idea of a “stateless government” (무형국가론) to unify overseas Koreans into a proto-government for national independence.

  4. 1914: Founded the Korean National Army Corps (대조선국민군단) in Hawaii, modeling it after modern militaries and training Korean youth for armed struggle.

  5. Advocated universal conscription (국민개병설) through his writings On Universal Military Service and What Every Soldier Should Know.

  6. Participated in the 1917 League of Oppressed Nations Conference in New York as a Korean representative, raising the cause of independence on the international stage.

  7. Engaged in military coordination in Manchuria and Siberia (1919–1921), joining forces with independence fighters such as Hong Beom-do and attempting to unify Korean armed groups for cross-border raids against Japan.

  8. Worked on plans for independence bases in China, including establishing the Continental Agricultural Company (대륙농간공사) to fund and shelter independence fighters.

  9. Despite factional conflicts, particularly with Syngman Rhee, Park remained a central figure in building overseas military capacity and maintaining a vision of armed resistance until his assassination in Beijing in 1928.

Eun-sik Park:

[1859. 09. 30~ 1925. 11. 01]

Achievements

Historian and Thinker: Authored two landmark works of nationalist historiography:

  • The Bloody History of the Korean Independence Movement (한국독립운동지혈사) – documenting anti-Japanese resistance from the 1884 Gapsin Coup to the March 1st Movement.

  • The History of Korea (한국통사) – narrating Korea’s decline into Japanese annexation, stressing national identity and resistance.

  • Educator and Journalist:

    • Co-editor of Hwangseong Sinmun (황성신문) alongside Jang Ji-yeon.

    • Chief editor of Daehan Maeil Sinbo (대한매일신보) after suppression of the Hwangseong Sinmun.

    • Actively promoted national enlightenment through schools, youth associations, and newspapers as vehicles for resistance.

  • Exile and Scholarship: After 1910 annexation, moved to Manchuria and later Shanghai, researching Goguryeo and Balhae history to prove Korea’s deep cultural roots and independence.

  • Activist in Exile: Co-founded the Tongjesa (同濟社) in Shanghai, a central independence organization before the Provisional Government.

  • Provisional Government Leadership:

    • Director of the Independent Newspaper in Shanghai (임정 기관지).

    • Prime Minister (1924) and later the second President of the Provisional Government (1925), after Syngman Rhee’s impeachment.

    • Carried out the second constitutional revision, shifting to a cabinet-centered system to stabilize the government.

  • Final Testament: Urged unity, all-people participation, and use of every possible method for independence.

Jun-seung Park :

[1866. 11. 24~1927. 03. 23]

Achievements

Religious & Community Leadership: Joined Cheondogyo in 1891, rising to major leadership roles including Jeopju (접주), Su-jeopju (수접주), and later Jeonnam & Jeolla regional leader.

  1. March 1st Movement:

    • Distributed 5,000 copies of the Declaration of Independence to Jeolla areas such as Jangseong and Imsil, mobilizing local uprisings.

    • Attended secret meetings with other Cheondogyo and nationalist leaders in February 1919.

    • Signed the Declaration of Independence as one of the 33 National Representatives.

    • Participated in the March 1, 1919 proclamation at Taehwagwan (태화관), shouting “Manse” with fellow leaders.

Verdicts

Arrested immediately after the March 1st Declaration.

In 1920, the Gyeongseong Appellate Court sentenced him to two years in prison under the Public Security Law and the Publications Law.

Served his sentence at Seodaemun Prison.

Yong-Seong Baek:

[1864. 05. 08~ 1940. 02. 24]

Achievements

Religious & Nationalist Role: A Buddhist monk who believed in saving the nation through Buddhism and enlightenment of the people.

  1. March 1st Movement:

    • Joined the independence plan via Han Yong-un in February 1919.

    • Gave his seal to sign the Declaration of Independence as the Buddhist representative among the 33 National Representatives.

    • On March 1, 1919, attended the proclamation at Taehwagwan (태화관) with other leaders, shouted “Manse”, and was arrested on the spot.

Verdicts

Arrested on March 1, 1919.

  1. In 1920, sentenced by the Gyeongseong Appellate Court to 1 year and 6 months in prison under the Public Security Law and Publications Law.

  2. Served his term in prison before release.

Gyu-sik Shin :

[1880. 01. 13~1922. 09. 25]

Achievements

Early Resistance: After the 1905 Eulsa Treaty, tried to rally local troops for an anti-Japanese uprising, but the plan was exposed and failed.

  1. Exile & Chinese Revolution: Fled to China in 1911, joined the Tongmenghui (同盟會), and even participated in Sun Yat-sen’s Wuchang Uprising. Built close ties with Chinese revolutionaries.

  2. Independence Organizations:

    • Helped found Dongjesa (同濟社) in Shanghai, a core hub for Korean exiles.

    • Promoted Korean cultural traditions and unity through Daejonggyo (大倧敎) religious ceremonies.

  3. Provisional Government:

    • After the March 1st Movement (1919), became Minister of Justice and later Vice Speaker of the Provisional Assembly.

    • In 1921, served as Prime Minister and Foreign Minister.

    • Negotiated with the Chinese Guangdong Government (호법정부), achieving recognition of the Korean Provisional Government and securing training opportunities for Korean students in Chinese military academies.

  4. Ideology & Leadership: Advocated unity among Korean factions and worked to expand international recognition of Korea’s independence cause.

Dol-seok Shin:

[1878. 11. 03~ 1908. 12. 12]

Achievements

Early Resistance: Joined the Eulmi Righteous Army (1896) after Queen Min’s assassination, fighting against Japanese forces in Gyeongsang and Gangwon regions.

  • Leadership: In 1906, raised an army in Yeongdeok, gathering over 3,000 soldiers, and became known as the “Tiger of Taebaek Mountains.”

  • Military Campaigns: Led guerrilla warfare across Yeonghae, Uljin, Samcheok, Gangneung, and into northern Gyeongsang, striking fear into Japanese troops. His daring raids forced Japan to redeploy troops to southern Korea.

  • Coordination: Attempted to link with other independence leaders like Yi In-yeong, Heo Wi, and Min Geung-ho in a united push toward Seoul in 1907. Though sidelined by social prejudice as a commoner, his army remained one of the most formidable peasant-led militias.

  • Symbol of Popular Resistance: Unlike many aristocratic commanders, he was a peasant-born leader, representing the grassroots spirit of anti-Japanese resistance.

Verdicts

Constantly pursued by Japanese army and police forces but never captured.

  1. Japanese officials acknowledged his elusive guerrilla tactics in reports, describing him as a persistent threat in Yeongdeok, Yeongyang, and Gangwon regions.

Chae-ho Shin :

[1880. 12. 08~1936. 02. 21]

Achievements

Early nationalist and historian: Advocated Korean self-determination and national pride through his writings in Hwangseong Sinmun and Daehan Maeil Shinbo, inspiring patriotic consciousness.

  1. Author of nationalist histories: Wrote Eulji Mundeokjeon, Daehan History, and Joseon History and Culture, developing a nationalist historiography that emphasized Korea’s historical continuity and resistance to Japanese imperialism.

  2. Activist in exile: Participated in the Shinminhoe and later joined independence activities in Manchuria and Russia, supporting armed resistance movements.

  3. Opposition to pro-Japanese and conservative ideas: Criticized Iljinhoe (a pro-Japanese group) and rejected moderate strategies like “self-government” or “diplomatic petitions,” instead advocating direct action and revolution.

  4. Ideological shift: Initially a nationalist historian influenced by heroism and Social Darwinism, but after the March 1st Movement (1919), he turned toward anarchism, promoting mass revolution and rejecting both imperialism and capitalism.

  5. Key writer for resistance groups: In 1923, at the request of Kim Won-bong, authored the “Joseon Revolution Manifesto” (조선혁명선언) for the Uiyeoldan (義烈團), calling for armed uprising and violent resistance against Japanese rule.

  6. Critic of the Provisional Government: Opposed Syngman Rhee’s leadership and the Provisional Government’s diplomatic approach, insisting on grassroots revolution rather than international dependence.

  7. Cultural and ideological influence: Advocated anarchism, equality, and human liberation, influencing both Korean and Chinese anarchist movements and contributing to transnational revolutionary thought in East Asia.

Verdicts

Arrest and imprisonment: In 1928, while publishing the journal Talhwan and seeking funds in Japanese-ruled Taiwan, he was arrested by Japanese police in Keelung.

After a lengthy trial lasting nearly 18 months, he was sentenced to 10 years in prison on charges of violating the Peace Preservation Law and currency forgery (though the real reason was his anarchist and anti-Japanese activism).

He was imprisoned in Lüshun Prison, where he suffered harsh conditions and torture.

Death in prison: Died in 1936 of cerebral hemorrhage, worsened by malnutrition, frostbite, and untreated illness—recognized as a martyr who died for the independence movement.

Hong-sik Shin:

[1872. 03. 01~ 1939. 03. 18]

Achievements

Early Christian organizer for 3·1 Movement (Feb–Mar 1919):

  • First Methodist figure to consent when Lee Seung-hoon asked clergy to join the plan.

  • Traveled to Seoul (Feb 19) to connect Presbyterian/Methodist circles (linked Lee Seung-hoon with YMCA’s Park Hee-do).

  • Took part in strategy meetings at I Gap-seong’s house (Feb 21), helping push cross-denominational cooperation with Cheondogyo and shift from a “petition” to a formal independence declaration.

  • Assigned to mobilize Pyongyang area: secured commitments from local pastors, arranged production of Taegukgi flags (hundreds made via teachers and clergy), and prepared simultaneous readings of the Declaration.

  1. Participant in the Seoul declaration:

    • Arrived at Taehwagwan (Insadong) on March 1, 1919, joined other leaders in circulating and affirming the Korean Declaration of Independence.

  2. Movement building in the provinces (indirect leadership while detained):

    • His advance organizing enabled multiple Pyongyang rallies on March 1 (churches/schools convened ~800 participants), catalyzing wider regional protests.

  3. Post-prison civic work supporting national revival:

    • As pastor (e.g., Incheon Naeri Church, later Wonju/Gangneung), led youth, literacy, and rural improvement drives; spearheaded temperance campaigns and wrote pieces (e.g., Shintong Travel, Jangsu-ong) aimed at moral reform and community capacity—activities that sustained independence consciousness and social cohesion in the 1920s–30s.

Verdicts

Arrest & interrogation:

  • Detained on March 1, 1919 at Taehwagwan; moved to the Police Bureau (Whyseongdae) and then to Seodaemun Prison (Mar 14).

  • During questioning, openly stated he came “to participate in the independence movement,” arguing independence was just and necessary for peace.

  1. Sentence:

    • Oct 30, 1920 — Kyŏngsŏng Appellate Court: Imprisonment for 2 years (charges stemming from the 3·1 activities).

    • Served time at Seodaemun and later Gyeongseong Prison (publicly observed to pray and read scripture daily).

    • Released: Nov 4, 1921 (served roughly 20 months, accounting for pre-trial detention).

  2. Casualties among associates he helped mobilize:

    • Several Pyongyang clergy were imprisoned; Rev. Park Seok-hun, who led in his stead, died in prison (Nov 16, 1919).

Jae-hong Ahn :

[1891. 12. 30~1965. 03. 01]

Achievements

While studying at Waseda University in Japan, Ahn joined nationalist student circles and later migrated to Shanghai, joining the Tongjesa (同濟社), an organization linked with Korean independence leaders like Shin Chae-ho, where he developed an interest in nationalist historiography.

  1. Returned to Korea and became involved in the Korean YMCA, mentoring students and spreading nationalist ideals.

  2. After the March 1st Movement (1919), he organized and served as the chief secretary of the secret group “Korean Youth Diplomatic Corps (대한민국 청년외교단)”, which maintained contact with the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea.

  3. Prominent figure in the Goods Promotion Movement (물산장려운동) with Jo Man-sik and Kim Sung-soo to promote Korean-made products and resist Japanese economic domination.

  4. Active in the National University Establishment Movement (민립대학설립운동) to promote Korean higher education under colonial rule.

  5. Later became one of the leading members of the Shin’ganhoe (新幹會) — a major left-right united nationalist organization opposing Japanese rule and advocating full independence.

  6. During the 1940s, developed the New Nationalist Historiography (신민족주의 사학), rejecting Japanese colonial historiography and affirming Korea’s ancient sovereignty through works like “A Review of Ancient Joseon” (조선상고사감).

  7. After liberation in 1945, co-founded the Korean Reconstruction Preparatory Committee (조선건국준비위원회) with Yeo Un-hyung and later founded the Korean National Party (국민당) supporting the Provisional Government.

Verdicts

1919–1922: Arrested for his role in the Korean Youth Diplomatic Corps and sentenced to three years in prison in Daegu.

  • 1928: Twice imprisoned for editorials in the Chosun Ilbo—one criticizing delays in justice (“The Victim of Delayed Bail”) and another condemning Japanese authority in Shandong (“The Wall Officer of the Jinan Incident”).

  • 1930s: Repeatedly imprisoned for involvement in nationalist and intellectual movements, including the Heungeop Club Incident (흥업구락부 사건) and the Korean Language Society Incident (조선어학회 사건), all related to anti-Japanese resistance and cultural independence efforts.

Ky-tak Yang:

[1871. 04. 02~ 1938. 04. 19]

Achievements

*Co-founder of The Korea Daily News (대한매일신보, 1904):
Collaborated with British journalist Ernest Bethell to launch Korea’s first bilingual nationalist newspaper in Hangul and English. The paper exposed Japanese imperialism, supported the righteous armies, and became a core platform for anti-Japanese sentiment.

  1. Leader in the National Debt Repayment Movement (국채보상운동, 1907):
    Used the Korea Daily News to spread and organize the movement nationwide, encouraging citizens to fund Korea’s financial independence from Japan.

  2. *Co-founder of the Shinminhoe (신민회, 1907):
    Formed with Ahn Chang-ho, Lee Hoe-young, and others to prepare for armed resistance. The organization trained young leaders, raised independence funds, and planned bases in Manchuria for future liberation.

  3. Organizer of the 105-Person Incident (105인 사건, 1910):
    Involved in plans to establish a military academy and independence base in Manchuria; falsely accused of plotting to assassinate the Japanese Governor-General, which led to mass arrests of independence activists.

  4. Post-release Activities:
    Founded secret nationalist groups like Daedongmin’guk (대동민국) and Tongcheonggyo (통천교) to sustain independence ideology under surveillance.
    Later joined the Korean Independence Army and Justice Party (정의부) in Manchuria as an adviser, and helped unify various independence groups into the Goryeo Revolutionary Party (고려혁명당, 1926).

  5. Contributed to the Provisional Government (대한민국 임시정부):
    Served as a Cabinet Minister and National Assembly member in the 1930s, emphasizing unity among resistance groups and advocating cultural and political independence.

Verdicts

1908: Arrested on fabricated charges of embezzling funds from the National Debt Repayment Movement; later acquitted due to lack of evidence.

  1. 1911 (105-Person Incident): Arrested by Japanese police, falsely accused of plotting to assassinate Governor-General Terauchi.
    → Sentenced to 10 years in prison, reduced to 6 years by the Daegu High Court.

  2. 1920: Imprisoned again for distributing independence propaganda during the visit of U.S. Congress members to Seoul; later temporarily released for his mother’s funeral.

Jeon-baek Yang :

[1869. 03. 10~1933. 01. 17]

Achievements

Grassroots organizer & educator in the northwest: Built church/school networks in Pyeongan & Manchuria (1896–1910s), which became safe hubs for nationalist discourse and youth mobilization.

  • Linked to the nationalist underground (1911): Swept up with Sinminhoe-aligned leaders in the fabricated “105 Persons Incident,” targeted because his schools/churches nurtured activists.

  • Financier & facilitator for overseas diplomacy (Feb 1919): Worked with Shinhan Youth Party envoys (e.g., Sun Woo-hyuk) on funding for sending Kim Kyu-sik to the Paris Peace Conference.

  • 3·1 Movement leadership (Mar 1, 1919): Traveled to Seoul, attended the Declaration at Taehwagwan with Christian–Cheondogyo leaders, and aligned Presbyterian networks in support of nationwide protests.

Verdicts

105 Persons Incident (1912–1913):

  • Sept 28, 1912 (Keijō District Court): 6 years’ imprisonment (torture noted during interrogation).

  • Mar 20, 1913 (Appeal): Acquitted along with 98 others; released.

  1. 3·1 Movement (1919–1921):

    • Arrested on Mar 1, 1919 after the declaration.

    • Oct 30, 1920 (Keijō High Court): 2 years’ imprisonment; served time at Keijō Prison (Mapo), released Nov 4, 1921 (sentence complete).

Han-muk Yang:

[1862. 04. 29~ 1919. 05. 26]

Achievements

Played a key role in Korea’s independence movement as a member of the 33 national representatives who signed and proclaimed the March 1st Declaration of Independence in 1919.

  1. Before that, organized and participated in various enlightenment and reform movements to counter pro-Japanese organizations such as Iljinhoe, co-founding Gongjinhoe and Heonjeong Research Society, promoting national sovereignty and constitutional reform.

  2. As a senior member of Cheondogyo, used the religious network to mobilize and inspire people for independence; helped spread the ideology of Innaecheon (“Man is Heaven”), emphasizing human dignity and equality.

  3. Involved in drafting and signing the Declaration of Independence, worked closely with Son Byeong-hui, Gwon Dong-jin, and Oh Se-chang, and coordinated student participation through Bosung College.

  4. Actively organized local independence demonstrations in Jeolla Province, including the March 15, 1919 movement in Hwasun, by sending word from Seoul before the nationwide uprising began.

Verdicts

Arrested immediately after the March 1st Declaration of Independence by Japanese authorities and imprisoned in Seodaemun Prison.

  1. Tortured during interrogation but maintained that participating in the independence movement was a moral duty of all Koreans.

  2. Died in prison on May 26, 1919, due to severe torture and harsh conditions, becoming the only one among the 33 national representatives to die in custody under Japanese rule.

Se-chang Oh :

[1864. 08. 06~1953. 04. 16]

Achievements

Played a major role in the Korean independence movement as one of the 33 national representatives who signed the March 1st Declaration of Independence in 1919.

  1. Prior to the March 1st Movement, contributed to national enlightenment and anti-Japanese efforts through the publication of Mansebo (the Cheondogyo newspaper), which spread reformist and independence ideas across the country.

  2. As a key figure in Cheondogyo, collaborated closely with Son Byeong-hui and Han Myeong-hyeon in using religion as a platform to organize and inspire Koreans toward independence.

  3. Supported educational independence and modernization as the founding principal of Jungdong School, promoting national self-strengthening through education.

Verdicts

Arrested by Japanese authorities immediately after the March 1st Declaration of Independence.

  1. Tried under the Japanese colonial court system and sentenced to three years in prison for his role in organizing and signing the declaration.

Hwa-young Oh:

[1879. 04. 05~ 1960. 09. 02]

Achievements

Actively participated in the March 1st Independence Movement (1919) as one of the Christian leaders involved in organizing and signing the Declaration of Independence. He was responsible for coordinating activities in Gaeseong and spreading news of the planned uprising.

Worked closely with independence figures such as Yi Seung-hoon, Ham Tae-young, and Shin Seok-gu, uniting Christian and Cheondogyo groups for the movement.

After the March 1st demonstrations, he continued his independence activism through education, religion, and social reform, serving as a pastor and later as a member of organizations like the Joseon Minheunghoe (Korean National Revitalization Society) and the Shinganhoe (New Korea Society), which promoted Korean self-determination and social equality.

Also participated in movements such as the Korean Products Promotion Society and supported the Gwangju Student Independence Movement (1929), showing continued dedication to anti-Japanese activism throughout the colonial period.

Refused to submit a statement of conversion or participate in Shinto shrine worship, even under pressure from Japanese authorities, demonstrating his steadfast national conviction.

Verdicts

Arrested on March 1, 1919, after the declaration of independence at Myungwolgwan in Seoul.

  1. Tried by the Japanese colonial court and sentenced to two years and six months in prison for violating the Peace Preservation Law (Boanbeop).

  2. Imprisoned in Gyeongseong Prison, where he served his full sentence and was released on May 5, 1922.

  3. Arrested again in 1938 for alleged involvement with the Heungeop Club, suspected of supporting independence activities; imprisoned for six months but refused to recant or cooperate with the Japanese government.

Dong-yeol Yoo:

[1879. 03. 26~1950. 10. 18]

Achievements

Organized/armed resistance (late 1900s): Co-founded the clandestine Hyochunhoe with fellow officers (e.g., Noh Baek-rin, Lee Dong-hwi) to target pro-Japanese collaborators; joined the Shinminhoe (New People’s Association) and raised funds for independence (1909–10).

Underground work after exile (1910s): Shuttled between Korea and China to finance and coordinate independence efforts; after release from prison, continued anti-Japanese work from China.

Party building in Manchuria (1920s): Co-organized the Joseon Revolutionary Party (1929, Jilin) to unify anti-Japanese forces; earlier briefly worked with Koryo Communist Party before refocusing on base-building (farms, hospital) for the movement after the Free City Incident (1921).

United front leadership (1930s): Served repeatedly as a National Commissioner in the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea (KPG) (from 1930, through the 1940s). Helped forge the anti-Japanese United National Front; as the Joseon Revolutionary Party representative, took part in forming the Korean National Revolutionary Party (1935) alongside major independence groups.

Military leadership (1940s): Served as Chief of Staff of the Korean Liberation Army (Kwangbokgun), coordinating armed struggle under the KPG during WWII.

Verdicts

“105 Persons Case” (1911): Arrested over alleged plot tied to the KPG/Korean activists; sentenced to 10 years. Released after ~1.5 years, then resumed independence activities from China.

Yeo-Dae Yoo:

[1878. 11. 26~ 1937. 01. 13]

Achievements

Christian Educator and Reformer:

Yu Yeo-dae, originally a Confucian scholar, converted to Christianity in 1898 through missionary N.C. Whittemore. He co-founded Ilshin School (1899), the first modern educational institution in Uiju, and later taught at Yangsil School, promoting literacy and enlightenment.

Active in National Debt Repayment Movement (1907):

Participated in the National Debt Repayment Movement, donating 5 hwan to help Korea recover financial independence from Japan — showing early nationalist awareness.

3.1 Independence Movement Leader (1919):

Played a central role in organizing and leading the Uiju branch of the March 1st Movement:

In February 1919, after meeting Lee Seung-hoon and Yang Jeon-baek, he pledged to lead the movement in Uiju.

On March 1, 1919, he gathered 700–800 people near the Uiju West Church, recited prayers, and read the Declaration of Independence aloud.

The event escalated into large-scale demonstrations involving over 2,000 citizens, continuing for several days.

The protests spread throughout northern Pyeongan Province, with Yu’s leadership sparking one of the most extensive regional uprisings following Seoul’s main event.

Advocate of Self-Governance and Education:

After independence activism, he continued to promote night schools (야학) and local self-rule, emphasizing education as the foundation of national strength.

Verdicts

Arrest and Trial (1919):

  • Arrested on March 4, 1919, with six others for “violation of the Public Security Act (보안법 제7조).”

  • During interrogation, he admitted to leading the independence declaration and justified it as a rightful act to represent Korea’s will at the Paris Peace Conference.

  1. Sentencing:

    • Initially tried by the Pyongyang District Court (신의주지청) and later transferred to the Gyeongseong District Court.

    • On October 30, 1919, he was sentenced to 2 years in prison.

    • Served his term at Seodaemun Prison, enduring harsh conditions and reflecting deeply on freedom and justice.

  2. Release and Later Views:

    • Released on November 6, 1921, after completing his sentence.

In-seok Yoo:

[1842. 01. 25~1915. 01. 29]

Achievements

Early Scholar and Anti-Foreign Activist:

Born in 1842 in Chuncheon, Gangwon Province.

A leading Confucian scholar of the Hwaseo School, deeply influenced by conservative Neo-Confucian ideals (Wi-jeong-cheok-sa — “defending orthodoxy and rejecting heterodoxy”).

In 1876, when the Treaty of Ganghwa was being negotiated, he and 47 fellow scholars submitted a petition opposing foreign contact, marking one of Korea’s first collective anti-foreign protests.

Leader of the Eulmi Uibyeong (Righteous Army, 1895–1896):

After the Eulmi Incident (1895)—the assassination of Empress Myeongseong—and the short-hair decree, Yoo led a major righteous army uprising centered in Jecheon, making it one of the strongest resistance bases in the country.

Formally appointed as Commander (의병장) by his followers in 1896.

Led successful operations at Chungju and Danyang, targeting pro-Japanese officials who implemented the haircut decree.

His forces temporarily occupied Chungju Fortress, symbolizing a moment of reclaiming sovereignty against the Japanese-backed Joseon government.

Advocate for Continued Resistance:

Even after the government ordered disbandment of the militias, Yoo declared that resistance would continue until Japan’s influence was fully removed from Korea.

Moved north after military losses and crossed into Manchuria, seeking Qing support for armed resistance.

Formation of the Korean Armed Forces in Exile (1909):

In 1909, helped establish the 13-Province Korean Volunteer Army (대한13도의군) in Vladivostok, alongside Lee Sang-seol, Lee Beom-yoon, and others.

Served as Supreme Commander (도총재) and issued a nationwide call for unity, urging Koreans to “fight to the last man against Japan.”

Leader of the Seongmyeonghoe (1910):

After annexation, Yoo became the head of the Seongmyeonghoe (성명회), an organization founded in Vladivostok to denounce Japan’s annexation and promote global awareness of Korea’s plight.

He personally gathered 8,624 signatures from Korean, Chinese, and Russian intellectuals for a declaration sent to major world powers and newspapers, demanding recognition of Korea’s right to independence.

Philosophical and Cultural Influence:

Authored “Uju Mundae (우주문답, Cosmic Questions)” (1913) — a treatise combining Confucian cosmology and political theory.

Advocated for the restoration of traditional moral governance (선정) over Western republican systems.

His works became central references for later Confucian nationalist thinkers in the independence era.

Ki-seop Yoon:

[1887. 04. 04~ 1959. 02. 27]

Achievements

Early Resistance and Education Efforts:

  • Born in 1887 in Jangdan, Gyeonggi Province.

  • After graduating from Boseong High School, he joined the Cheongnyeon Hakwoohoe (Youth Academic Association) in 1909, a group that promoted anti-Japanese nationalism.

  • Following the 105-Man Incident (1911), he fled to Manchuria, marking his transition into exile activism.

  1. Military Training and Leadership in Exile:

    • Served as principal of the Shinheung Military Academy (신흥무관학교) in 1911, where he trained independence fighters and future officers of the Korean Independence Army.

    • Joined Bumin-dan (부민단), a successor to the Gyeonghaksa organization, continuing efforts to unite Korean expatriates in Manchuria.

  2. Participation in Provisional Government Activities:

    • Moved to Shanghai in 1919 following the March 1st Movement, answering the Provisional Government’s call for experienced leaders.

    • Served as military instructor at the Provisional Government’s Military Academy and later became an Imsi Uijeongwon (Provisional Assembly) member, eventually elected as its 7th Speaker.

    • Held key positions such as Vice Minister of Military Affairs, Cabinet Minister, and National Commissioner in the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea.

  3. Political and Diplomatic Activism (1920s–1930s):

    • Actively participated in international anti-imperialist movements, joining the League of Oppressed Nations of the East (1927) as a director.

    • Became a founding member of several Korean political parties in exile:

      • Korean National Party (한국국민당, 1927)

      • Korean Independence Party (한국독립당, 1930) – served as Military Committee Chairman

      • Korean Revolutionary Party (한국혁명당, 1932) – served as Executive Chairman, promoting cooperation among fragmented independence groups

    • Played a leading role in establishing the Korean National Revolutionary Party (조선민족혁명당) in 1935, uniting various anti-Japanese organizations and serving as a Central Committee member.

    • In 1940, rejoined the Provisional Government as National Commissioner, and later became Deputy Minister of Military Affairs (1943), contributing to the reorganization of the Korean Liberation Army (광복군).

Gap-sung Lee:

[1889. 10. 23~1981. 03. 25]

Achievements

Early Education and Career:

  • Born in Daegu, 1889, into a commoner family.

  • Studied at Kyungshin School (경신학교) and later graduated from Severance Medical School, majoring in pharmacy.

  • Worked as a pharmacist at Severance Hospital, gaining respect as an educated intellectual during Japanese rule.

  • March 1st Independence Movement (1919):

    • Became one of the 33 signatories of the Korean Declaration of Independence, serving as a key organizer of the March 1st Movement.

    • Played a central role in coordinating student protests and distributing leaflets, risking his life for the cause.

    • His participation marked him as one of the foremost civilian leaders of the nationwide movement.

  • Continued Independence Activities in Exile and Domestically:

    • After release from prison, he continued nationalist efforts through Christian and civic organizations, becoming a board member of the YMCA (1926) and later head of Kyungsung Industrial Company (1931).

    • 1933: Fled to Shanghai due to his involvement in the Shinganhoe (신간회) case, where he managed Jejung Pharmacy while supporting Korean independence activists abroad.

    • 1940: Arrested again during the Heungeop Club Incident (흥업구락부 사건) for anti-Japanese nationalist activities.

Verdicts

1919: Arrested for organizing and signing the Declaration of Independence.

  • Sentence: Over three years’ imprisonment by Japanese authorities.

  • Torture: Subjected to extreme physical torture, including the removal of fingernails and toenails by the Japanese police (as later accounts attest).

  1. 1940: Imprisoned for seven months in the Heungeop Club case, which targeted intellectuals promoting Korean independence ideals.

  2. Over his lifetime, he endured a total of 12 years and 8 months of imprisonment or detention under Japanese colonial rule.

Dong-young Lee:

[1869. 10. 06~ 1940. 03. 13]

Achievements

Led Independence Club/Manmin Gongdonghoe; wrote activist editorials (1896–98).

  1. Organized anti-Eulsa blood-petition protest (1905).

  2. Co-ran diaspora schools: Seojeon Seosuk (Longjing), Myeongdong Seosuk; co-founded Shinminhoe (1907).

  3. Built Manchurian bases: Gyeonghaksa self-rule, Shinheung Military Academy (officer training).

  4. In the Russian Far East, issued Haejo Shinmun; pushed a restoration government plan.

  5. Co-drafted the 1918 Kando Independence Declaration (39인).

  6. Key architect of the Provisional Government (1919): chaired 1st Assembly, proclaimed “Republic of Korea,” adopted the Charter; served as Acting PM.

  7. Held core PG posts through the 1920–30s (Interior/PM/Speaker/State-Council head); built Yeontongje liaison & Transport Bureau.

  8. Co-founded Korean Independence Party (1930); later Korean National Party (1935); drove unity.

  9. Backed Patriotic Corps actions (Lee Bong-chang, Yun Bong-gil), unlocking KMT support; issued wartime proclamations and sent a military special mission (1939).

Verdicts

1898 (Independence Club crackdown): Arrested with Lee Jun; held ~7 months (late Joseon/Daehan state custody).

1905 (anti-Eulsa protest): Detained ~2 months by Japanese police after the Daehanmun blood-petition action.

1914 (Russian Far East): Detained ~3 months by Russian authorities for organizing an “illegal military body.”

No Japanese colonial court verdict is recorded in the provided material for his exile period (he largely operated abroad, outside Japanese courts’ reach).

Dong-hwi Lee:

[1873. 08. 29~1935. 01. 31]

Achievements

Mass education for resistance: Founded/expanded modern schools (e.g., Bochang School network) to build civic capacity, drilled students, and used Daehan Jaganghoe, Seobuk Society, and the National Debt Repayment Movement to organize and politicize the public.

  1. Secret-society leadership: Senior organizer of Shinminhoe (provincial lead for Hamgyŏng), pushing the triad strategy of national education, national industry, and publishing for anti-Japanese mobilization.

  2. Base-building in Manchuria & Primorye: Rebuilt the Kwonŏphoe (Primorye), cofounded the clandestine Korean Restoration Army Government (1913), set up a cadet school, and in North Manchuria/Wangqing re-organized the Gwangbokdan with communications and supply lines.

  3. Socialist front & armed struggle: Founded the Korean Socialists’ Party (1918) during the Russian Revolution; raised Red Guard units and fought in the Ussuri front against Japanese/White forces.

  4. Provisional Government role: Arrived Shanghai 1919 as the first Prime Minister of the ROK Provisional Government, pushing administrative/liaison networks (Yeontong/Gyotong) and seeking unified command and resources.

  5. International support drive: Engaged the Comintern to secure recognition/resources; led the Shanghai faction of the Koryo Communist Party (1921) and won Moscow’s recognition over rivals to free detained Korean cadres.

  6. Sustainment & relief (1930s): Regional lead for MOPR (Intl. Red Aid) in the Far East—funding aid for imprisoned anti-Japanese activists and families, and maintaining propaganda/logistics.

Verdicts

1905 Ganghwa incident: Tried after a clash with the local magistrate—released (four subordinates punished).

  1. 1907 (alleged Heigō/insurrection ties): Detained ~4 months, then released.

  2. 1911 “105 Persons Case” dragnet: Internal exile (Daemuuido) for one year; no formal conviction.

  3. 1917 Russia: Arrested by Russian gendarmes, released through Korean Bolshevik advocacy.

  4. Post-1919: No additional finalized court sentences recorded; political fallout culminated in resignation as Provisional Government PM (1921) amid factional disputes.

Beom-seok Lee:

[1900. 12. 11~ 1972. 05. 11]

Achievements

Military training for liberation: Trained at Yunnan Military Academy (cavalry; graduated 1919).

  1. Cadre builder in Manchuria: Instructor at Shinheung Military Academy; later professor-of-cadets at Bukro Gunjeongseo (North Route Military Administration).

  2. Front-line commander: Fought in the Cheongsanri (Qingshanli) campaign (1920) leading/covering vanguard actions.

  3. Transnational operations: Served with Korean formations in the Russian Far East (a.k.a. “Koryŏ Revolutionary Army/Corps” cavalry role reported), then reorganized forces in Manchuria; joined Shinminbu (1925) and formed the Koryŏ Revolutionary Army (Gyeolsadan) for raids against Japanese/puppet targets.

  4. Chinese theater roles: Staff/operations postings with Chinese anti-Japanese forces (e.g., Ma-Zanshan group; later Nationalist commands), building Korea–China military ties.

  5. Korean Liberation Army (KLA): In the ROK Provisional Government’s KLA, served as Deputy Chief of Staff and Commander, 2nd Detachment; worked with the U.S. OSS on the planned Seoul infiltration/strike near war’s end.

Verdicts

Colonial-era prosecutions: None documented as finalized court convictions; his career was largely in armed exile formations (Manchuria, USSR/China) rather than within colonial courts.

  1. Recognition: Treated post-1945 as a principal independence fighter (KLA high command). (Later domestic political controversies are unrelated to his independence record.)